ETHICS 202 Important Topics – VU Eth202

ETH202 PAST PAPER TOPICS

How Are Categorical Oughts Possible?

Categorical oughts, according to Kant, do not depend on our desires. Unlike hypothetical “oughts,” which follow an “if-then” condition (e.g., “If you want to be healthy, you ought to exercise”), categorical oughts are universal and binding. Kant argues that categorical oughts are possible because humans have reason, and reason compels us to accept moral principles that apply universally. His principle, known as the Categorical Imperative, states:
“Act on that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.”
For example, if one refuses to help others in need, they set a standard they would not want applied to themselves if they needed help​.

Traditional Advertisement

Traditional advertisement is based on market research, which examines people’s likes and dislikes in a concrete way. It relies on rational behavior from consumers. In contrast, modern advertisement uses motivational research and psychology to manipulate emotions and influence impulsive spending. Critics, such as Vance Packard in The Hidden Persuaders, argue that modern advertising plays on people’s weaknesses and promotes materialistic values​.

Christianity and Moral Theory

Christianity follows the Divine Command Theory (DCT) of morality. This theory states that moral rightness is determined by God’s commands. In this view, actions are “right” if commanded by God and “wrong” if forbidden by Him. Christian morality is rooted in the belief that the universe was created with meaning and purpose, and humans are to follow God’s laws as revealed through scriptures and prophets​.

Flaws of Hedonism

Hedonism claims that pleasure is the only intrinsic good. However, critics argue that this view oversimplifies human well-being. For instance, if a pianist loses their hands in an accident, hedonism suggests that his suffering is bad only because it causes unhappiness. But people value things like creativity and friendship beyond just pleasure. Thus, hedonism “gets things the wrong way around,” as happiness is a response to achieving valuable things, not the sole measure of good​.

Mill’s View About Happiness

John Stuart Mill, a utilitarian philosopher, states that happiness is the ultimate good and all other things are desirable only as means to achieving happiness. He believes in Hedonism, which asserts that pleasure is the only intrinsic good. However, Mill also distinguishes between higher and lower pleasures, arguing that intellectual and moral pleasures are superior to mere physical pleasures​.

Which of the following versions of utilitarianism is compatible with moral common sense?

• Rule Utilitarianism is more aligned with moral common sense because it focuses on long-term rules rather than individual actions​.

Which of the following theories argues that pleasure is the only intrinsic good?

• Hedonism claims that pleasure is the sole intrinsic good​.

Which of the following determined good and bad in the medieval period?

• Divine Commands were the basis of morality in the medieval period​.

Which of the following is related to the case study?

• Ethical dilemmas involving absolute moral rules, such as Kant’s Inquiring Murderer scenario, are examples of case studies in ethics​.

Most Important Argument Against Utilitarianism

Critics of utilitarianism argue that it conflicts with fundamental moral principles such as justice, individual rights, and personal relationships. The main objections include:

1. Justice – Utilitarianism can justify unjust actions if they maximize happiness. For example, punishing an innocent person could be justified if it prevents widespread unrest.
2. Individual Rights – The theory does not respect inalienable rights. It can justify violating someone’s rights if it benefits the majority.
3. Personal Relationships – Utilitarianism demands impartiality, which means treating loved ones and strangers equally, something that contradicts human nature​.

Hedonism with an Example

Hedonism states that pleasure is the only intrinsic good and pain is the only intrinsic bad. However, critics argue that this view oversimplifies human experiences.

Example:
A pianist loses their hands in an accident and can no longer play music. According to hedonism, this is bad only because it makes them unhappy. However, the real issue is not just the lack of pleasure but the loss of something valuable (artistic creativity), showing that happiness is a response to achieving meaningful things, not the sole measure of good​.

Natural Law Theory on Bad Actions

According to Natural Law Theory (NLT), moral laws have objective validity and actions are considered bad if they contradict the natural purposes of human beings. The theory argues:

• Moral laws are universal and unchangeable.
• Human reason can identify morally right actions.
• Bad actions are those that go against the rational order of nature.

For instance, harming others, lying, or acting selfishly is condemned because it disrupts natural human flourishing and social harmony​.

Defense of Utilitarianism

Utilitarians respond to criticisms with several defenses:

1. Unrealistic Scenarios – Many arguments against utilitarianism use hypothetical, extreme situations that rarely occur in real life.
2. Best Consequences Are Not Always Clear – Opponents assume that harmful actions (e.g., lying) will always have good consequences, but experience shows they often lead to worse outcomes.
3. Rule Utilitarianism – A revised version of the theory argues that general moral rules should be followed, as they produce the best outcomes in the long run. For example, lying might seem beneficial in a particular case, but a general rule against lying leads to greater societal trust and stability​.

Bentham’s Version of Utilitarianism

Jeremy Bentham developed Act Utilitarianism, which states:

• Actions should be judged solely by their consequences.
• He proposed the Principle of Utility, meaning that actions should aim to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.
• He introduced the Hedonic Calculus, a system to measure pleasure based on factors like intensity, duration, certainty, and extent.

However, Bentham’s theory was criticized as “Pig Philosophy” because it did not distinguish between higher intellectual pleasures and basic animalistic pleasures​.

Bentham/Utilitarianism’s View on Treatment of Animals

Bentham argued that animals deserve moral consideration because they can experience pain and pleasure. He famously said:

“The question is not, Can they reason? nor, Can they talk? but, Can they suffer?”

This implies that animals should be treated with kindness because their suffering matters just as much as human suffering. Utilitarian ethics support the humane treatment of animals and condemn unnecessary cruelty​.

4. Types of Ethical Studies

Ethics is divided into three main areas:

1. Normative Ethics: Deciding how people should act.
   • Example: Determining whether stealing is always wrong.
2. Meta-Ethics: Analyzing ethical language and concepts.
   • Example: Exploring what “justice” really means.
3. Applied Ethics: Solving real-world moral problems.
   • Example: Discussing ethical practices in medicine.

5. Types of Values

• Intrinsic Value: Something valued for its own sake.
  • Example: Happiness.
• Instrumental Value: Something valued because it helps achieve something else.
  • Example: Money, because it can buy necessities

1. Mill’s Modified Utilitarianism

John Stuart Mill made changes to Bentham’s version of utilitarianism to address its limitations. He called his approach Eudaimonistic Utilitarianism, focusing on “happiness” rather than mere pleasure.

2. Objections to Bentham’s Utilitarianism

• Too Simplistic: Bentham’s focus on maximizing pleasure and minimizing suffering ignored other important values.
  • Examples of values ignored:
    • Moral values: Honesty, fairness.
    • Social values: Generosity, politeness.
    • Aesthetic values: Beauty, symmetry.
    • Intellectual values: Knowledge, clarity​.
• Too Complicated: Bentham’s Hedonic Calculus, used to measure pleasure and pain, had too many variables and was difficult to apply.
  • Example: Comparing a child’s joy from a toy with an adult’s joy from friendship was problematic​​.

3. Mill’s Improvements

Mill introduced the idea of higher and lower pleasures:

1. Lower Pleasures: Physical and basic, such as eating, drinking, or resting.
2. Higher Pleasures: Intellectual, creative, and spiritual experiences, like enjoying art or gaining knowledge​.

Key Insight: Higher pleasures are more valuable because they contribute to long-term happiness and growth. As Mill stated:

• “It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied.”

4. Examples of Higher and Lower Pleasures

• Lower Pleasure: Eating a delicious meal provides immediate gratification but has no lasting impact if overindulged.
• Higher Pleasure: Developing a skill like playing the piano brings deep satisfaction and personal growth​.

3. Euthanasia

• Definition: Euthanasia is allowing or aiding someone to die peacefully without medical interference.
• Types:
  1. Mercy Death: Assisted suicide where the patient consents.
  2. Mercy Killing: Ending a life without explicit consent (illegal in most places).

2. Euthanasia and Utilitarian View

• Religious Perspective: Most religious traditions consider all killing, including euthanasia, to be wrong because life is seen as a gift from God.
• Utilitarian Perspective: Utilitarians ask which action creates the greatest balance of happiness over suffering.
  • Example: A physicist named Matthew Donnelly, who was in severe pain and suffering, requested mercy killing. From a utilitarian view, his brother’s decision to end his suffering could be justified as relieving pain​.

Hedonism:

Utilitarianism claims that the only intrinsic good is happiness (or pleasure), a view known as Hedonism.

• Criticism: Not all things we value contribute directly to happiness. Some values, like truth and justice, are important even when they don’t lead to happiness.
• Example: A whistleblower may tell the truth and cause unhappiness temporarily, but truth has its own value beyond pleasure​.

1. Defense of Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism has faced criticism for being at odds with concepts like justice, individual rights, and backward-looking reasons (e.g., keeping promises). Critics argue that it might justify actions that violate moral intuitions, such as lying or breaking promises. However, defenders of utilitarianism provide three main arguments in its favor.

2. First Defense: Unrealistic Criticism (most important)

• Critics often use hypothetical examples that are unrealistic and unlikely to occur in the real world. Utilitarians argue that these examples are irrelevant.
• Example: Critics claim that lying can have good outcomes in specific cases. Utilitarians respond that, in reality:
  • If a lie is discovered, it could worsen the situation.
  • The real culprit might remain free to commit further crimes.
  • Trust in the justice system would be undermined​.

3. Second Defense: Common Sense

Utilitarianism often aligns with common moral intuitions about honesty, promise-keeping, and fairness. In practice:

• Lying and breaking promises usually lead to bad outcomes, such as harming others or damaging reputations.
• Example: A person who constantly breaks promises loses trust and friends, which results in unhappiness​.

4. Third Defense: “So What?” Argument

• Philosopher J.J. Smart argued that common moral feelings (like guilt or justice) are often influenced by irrational cultural prejudices.
• Utilitarians suggest that rational theories should not be dismissed simply because they conflict with these feelings.
• Example: In the past, racial discrimination was justified by common sense, but utilitarian reasoning reveals its flaws​.

1. Kant’s Categorical Imperative

Immanuel Kant introduced the idea of moral rules as absolute and exceptionless. His philosophy is based on reasoning rather than religious commands. Kant believed:

• Moral rules must be followed at all times, regardless of the situation.
• Example: You should not lie, even if lying could save someone’s life​.

2. The Case of the Inquiring Murderer

Kant used a famous example: If a murderer asks you about a victim’s location, should you tell the truth or lie?

• According to Kant, lying is always wrong, even in such extreme cases. His reasoning is based on the universal nature of moral laws: if lying were allowed, trust would disappear​.

3. Two Types of ‘Ought’

Kant distinguished between:

1. Hypothetical ‘Oughts’: Actions based on specific desires.
   • Example: If you want to pass an exam, you ought to study.
2. Categorical ‘Oughts’: Unconditional moral duties.
   • Example: You ought to help others, regardless of your desires​​.

4. The Principle of Universalizability

• Kant’s moral theory requires that any action you take should be one you would want everyone else to take in similar situations.
• Example: If you lie to save someone, you must accept that lying could become a universal rule, which could lead to chaos​.

2. Intrinsic vs. Instrumental Value

• Intrinsic Value: Humans have inherent value because of their rationality and autonomy.
• Instrumental Value: Other beings, like animals, are considered valuable only because they serve human purposes.
  • Example: Animals may provide food or labor but do not possess moral standing equivalent to humans​.

1. Definition of Bioethics

• Meaning: “Life ethics” or ethics applied to medical fields.
• Key Areas Covered:
  • Caring for the dying: Issues of allowing death, mercy death, and mercy killing.
  • Truth telling and confidentiality.
  • Human experimentation and informed consent.
  • Genetics, fertilization, and birth.
  • Allocation of medical resources and costs of healthcare.
  • Population and birth control.

Holistic Relationship:

• Humans and nature are mutually dependent; humans are part of nature and vice versa.
• Example: The ecological balance of ecosystems highlights humans’ reliance on nature.

Reasoning’s Role:

• Human reasoning should unite humans with nature, recognizing its intrinsic value.
• Example: Greater intelligence gives humans a responsibility to protect rather than exploit nature.

4. Types of Advertising

1. Traditional Advertising:
   • Based on market research, catering to public likes and dislikes (e.g., billboard campaigns).
   • Responses are usually rational.
2. Modern Advertising:
   • Uses motivational research to target subconscious desires through psychological manipulation.
   • Encourages emotional responses.
   • Example: Vance Packard’s book “The Hidden Persuaders” criticizes modern advertising for exploiting human psychology​​.

5. Ethical Concerns in Modern Advertising

• Encourages non-rational, impulsive spending.
• Exploits children and vulnerable groups by creating unnecessary desires.
• Plays on hidden psychological motivations, often intruding on privacy.
• Subordinates truth to desire, compromising ethical standards​.