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ETH202 PAST PAPER TOPICS 4. Types of Ethical Studies Ethics is divided into three main areas: Normative Ethics: Deciding how people should act. Example: Determining whether stealing is always wrong. Meta-Ethics: Analyzing ethical language and concepts. Example: Exploring what "justice" really means. Applied Ethics: Solving real-world moral problems. Example: Discussing ethical practices in medicine. 5. Types of Values Intrinsic Value: Something valued for its own sake. Example: Happiness. Instrumental Value: Something valued because it helps achieve something else. Example: Money, because it can buy necessities 1. Mill’s Modified Utilitarianism John Stuart Mill made changes to Bentham’s version of utilitarianism to address its limitations. He called his approach Eudaimonistic Utilitarianism, focusing on "happiness" rather than mere pleasure. 2. Objections to Bentham’s Utilitarianism Too Simplistic: Bentham’s focus on maximizing pleasure and minimizing suffering ignored other important values. Examples of values ignored: Moral values: Honesty, fairness. Social values: Generosity, politeness. Aesthetic values: Beauty, symmetry. Intellectual values: Knowledge, clarity. Too Complicated: Bentham’s Hedonic Calculus, used to measure pleasure and pain, had too many variables and was difficult to apply. Example: Comparing a child’s joy from a toy with an adult’s joy from friendship was problematic. 3. Mill’s Improvements Mill introduced the idea of higher and lower pleasures: Lower Pleasures: Physical and basic, such as eating, drinking, or resting. Higher Pleasures: Intellectual, creative, and spiritual experiences, like enjoying art or gaining knowledge. Key Insight: Higher pleasures are more valuable because they contribute to long-term happiness and growth. As Mill stated: "It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied." 4. Examples of Higher and Lower Pleasures Lower Pleasure: Eating a delicious meal provides immediate gratification but has no lasting impact if overindulged. Higher Pleasure: Developing a skill like playing the piano brings deep satisfaction and personal growth. 3. Euthanasia Definition: Euthanasia is allowing or aiding someone to die peacefully without medical interference. Types: Mercy Death: Assisted suicide where the patient consents. Mercy Killing: Ending a life without explicit consent (illegal in most places). 2. Euthanasia and Utilitarian View Religious Perspective: Most religious traditions consider all killing, including euthanasia, to be wrong because life is seen as a gift from God. Utilitarian Perspective: Utilitarians ask which action creates the greatest balance of happiness over suffering. Example: A physicist named Matthew Donnelly, who was in severe pain and suffering, requested mercy killing. From a utilitarian view, his brother’s decision to end his suffering could be justified as relieving pain. Hedonism: Utilitarianism claims that the only intrinsic good is happiness (or pleasure), a view known as Hedonism. Criticism: Not all things we value contribute directly to happiness. Some values, like truth and justice, are important even when they don't lead to happiness. Example: A whistleblower may tell the truth and cause unhappiness temporarily, but truth has its own value beyond pleasure. 1. Defense of Utilitarianism Utilitarianism has faced criticism for being at odds with concepts like justice, individual rights, and backward-looking reasons (e.g., keeping promises). Critics argue that it might justify actions that violate moral intuitions, such as lying or breaking promises. However, defenders of utilitarianism provide three main arguments in its favor. 2. First Defense: Unrealistic Criticism (most important) Critics often use hypothetical examples that are unrealistic and unlikely to occur in the real world. Utilitarians argue that these examples are irrelevant. Example: Critics claim that lying can have good outcomes in specific cases. Utilitarians respond that, in reality: If a lie is discovered, it could worsen the situation. The real culprit might remain free to commit further crimes. Trust in the justice system would be undermined. 3. Second Defense: Common Sense Utilitarianism often aligns with common moral intuitions about honesty, promise-keeping, and fairness. In practice: Lying and breaking promises usually lead to bad outcomes, such as harming others or damaging reputations. Example: A person who constantly breaks promises loses trust and friends, which results in unhappiness. 4. Third Defense: "So What?" Argument Philosopher J.J. Smart argued that common moral feelings (like guilt or justice) are often influenced by irrational cultural prejudices. Utilitarians suggest that rational theories should not be dismissed simply because they conflict with these feelings. Example: In the past, racial discrimination was justified by common sense, but utilitarian reasoning reveals its flaws. 1. Kant’s Categorical Imperative Immanuel Kant introduced the idea of moral rules as absolute and exceptionless. His philosophy is based on reasoning rather than religious commands. Kant believed: Moral rules must be followed at all times, regardless of the situation. Example: You should not lie, even if lying could save someone's life. 2. The Case of the Inquiring Murderer Kant used a famous example: If a murderer asks you about a victim's location, should you tell the truth or lie? According to Kant, lying is always wrong, even in such extreme cases. His reasoning is based on the universal nature of moral laws: if lying were allowed, trust would disappear. 3. Two Types of ‘Ought’ Kant distinguished between: Hypothetical ‘Oughts’: Actions based on specific desires. Example: If you want to pass an exam, you ought to study. Categorical ‘Oughts’: Unconditional moral duties. Example: You ought to help others, regardless of your desires. 4. The Principle of Universalizability Kant’s moral theory requires that any action you take should be one you would want everyone else to take in similar situations. Example: If you lie to save someone, you must accept that lying could become a universal rule, which could lead to chaos. 2. Intrinsic vs. Instrumental Value Intrinsic Value: Humans have inherent value because of their rationality and autonomy. Instrumental Value: Other beings, like animals, are considered valuable only because they serve human purposes. Example: Animals may provide food or labor but do not possess moral standing equivalent to humans. 1. Definition of Bioethics Meaning: "Life ethics" or ethics applied to medical fields. Key Areas Covered: Caring for the dying: Issues of allowing death, mercy death, and mercy killing. Truth telling and confidentiality. Human experimentation and informed consent. Genetics, fertilization, and birth. Allocation of medical resources and costs of healthcare. Population and birth control. Holistic Relationship: Humans and nature are mutually dependent; humans are part of nature and vice versa. Example: The ecological balance of ecosystems highlights humans’ reliance on nature. Reasoning’s Role: Human reasoning should unite humans with nature, recognizing its intrinsic value. Example: Greater intelligence gives humans a responsibility to protect rather than exploit nature. 4. Types of Advertising Traditional Advertising: Based on market research, catering to public likes and dislikes (e.g., billboard campaigns). Responses are usually rational. Modern Advertising: Uses motivational research to target subconscious desires through psychological manipulation. Encourages emotional responses. Example: Vance Packard’s book "The Hidden Persuaders" criticizes modern advertising for exploiting human psychology. 5. Ethical Concerns in Modern Advertising Encourages non-rational, impulsive spending. Exploits children and vulnerable groups by creating unnecessary desires. Plays on hidden psychological motivations, often intruding on privacy. Subordinates truth to desire, compromising ethical standards.

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