Comprehensive Communication Skills Notes

A. What is Communication?

Communication is the process of sharing information, ideas, thoughts, feelings, and emotions between people through a continuous activity of speaking, listening, and understanding. It's derived from the Latin word "Communico," meaning "to share." Effective communication is a learned skill, crucial for personal, social, and professional success.

B. The Communication Process/Cycle

Communication is a dynamic, two-way process involving several key elements:

• Idea (Sender/Source): The origin of the message; a concept, feeling, or information in the sender's mind. The person who transmits the message is called the sender.
• Encoding: The sender translates the idea into a message using words, symbols, or gestures.
• Message: The actual information being conveyed, whether verbal (spoken/written) or nonverbal.
• Channel: The medium through which the message travels (e.g., verbal, written, visual, face-to-face conversation, email, phone call, letter). Choosing the right channel is vital and depends on factors like urgency, need for record, and audience.
• Communication Methods: Broadly, channels can be categorized into oral, written, and nonverbal methods.
• Loss in Transmission: When a disturbance in the communication channel (e.g., bad telephone line) causes part of the message to be lost or not clearly received. This barrier is related to problems in the medium or channel itself.
• Decoding: The receiver interprets the message, translating the symbols back into a meaningful idea.
• Receiver: The person or group for whom the message is intended; the intended recipient of the message.
• Feedback: The receiver's response to the message, which indicates understanding and allows the sender to gauge effectiveness. Feedback makes communication a two-way process.
  • Categories of Feedback: Feedback has 5 main categories: Evaluation, Interpretation, Support, Probing, and Understanding.
  • Probing: Attempting to gain additional information, continue the discussion, or clarify a point.
• Content & Context:
  • Content: The literal words or symbols of the message.
  • Context (Paralanguage): How the message is delivered (tone of voice, body language, facial expressions). Context, particularly the vocal aspects of delivery, is known as paralanguage. Context can significantly alter or reinforce the content's meaning.
• Difference between Context and Contact:

  Feature	Context	Contact
  Definition	Refers to the situational, environmental, psychological, relational, and cultural circumstances surrounding a communication event. It influences how messages are sent and received.	Often refers to the establishment of connection or interaction between communicators. In nonverbal communication, eye contact is a key form of establishing this connection. Physical contact (touch) is another form.
  Example	Speaking to your boss in their office (formal environmental context) about a project deadline vs. chatting with a friend at a coffee shop (informal environmental context) about weekend plans.	Making eye contact with an audience member during a speech establishes contact and can increase engagement. A handshake is a form of physical contact used in greetings.

• Noise (Barriers): Anything that interferes with the accurate transmission or reception of the message.

  Types of Barriers (Noise):

  • Physical Barriers/Noise: Environmental or physical distractions; external environmental sounds that distract from communication. These are often the easiest to identify and reduce or eliminate. (Examples: Loud construction noise outside a meeting room, a very cold or hot room, poor lighting making it hard to see visuals, hearing birds singing while trying to have a conversation.) To reduce them, one can choose a quieter location, adjust the thermostat, or improve lighting. The sender is often considered responsible for initiating actions to overcome physical barriers.
  • Psychological Barriers: Preconceived notions, biases, emotional state.
  • Listener Barriers: Obstacles within the receiver. (Examples: prejudice/bias, inattention, emotional state, preconceived notions, jumping to conclusions, preoccupation/distraction, emotional interference, egocentrism, lack of interest, physical discomfort). These are often harder to identify and reduce or eliminate because they are internal to the listener.
  • Sender Barriers: Obstacles related to the sender. (Examples: unclear speech, badly expressed message/poor message construction, inappropriate channel choice, poor retention by the speaker, parts of the message lost due to issues with the medium selected by sender). Sender-related barriers are often considered the most difficult to identify and reduce or eliminate.
  • Semantic Barriers: Misunderstanding of words or symbols due to different interpretations or unfamiliar vocabulary.
• Causes of Communication Barriers: Prejudices, "I" Attitude, and Resistance to Change can all cause communication barriers. Language itself is probably the most common barrier due to its complexities. Attentive listening, however, overcomes barriers.
• Information Load / Information Mass (Over-communication): Excess of information bombarded on the listener is often termed information overload (or information mass). This can be a barrier as the listener cannot process everything.
• Conflicting Information: When a message contradicts previous information or actions, or conflicts with what an audience member already believes or knows, it can lead to mental turbulence or cognitive dissonance.
• Strength/Difficulty of Overcoming Barriers: Generally, physical barriers are often easiest to identify and reduce, while listener barriers and particularly sender-related barriers can be more challenging.
• Overcoming Communication Barriers: The first step is to recognize the most common barriers and then, understand their negative impact on communication.
• Example of Language Difference as a Barrier: Using jargon or technical terms the receiver doesn't understand. For instance, a doctor using complex medical terms with a patient who has no medical background.
• Example of Inattentive Listening as a Barrier: The receiver is distracted or not focusing on the message. For example, someone checking their phone during a presentation, thus missing key information.

C. Importance of Communication Skills

Effective communication skills are vital for:

• Job Performance: Clear communication leads to better understanding of tasks, improved teamwork, efficient problem-solving, stronger client relationships, and overall increased productivity. Misunderstandings can lead to errors, wasted time, and reduced morale.
• During a Job Interview: Good communication skills help an individual to:
  • Clearly articulate their qualifications, skills, and experiences.
  • Understand the interviewer's questions accurately.
  • Build rapport and make a positive first impression.
  • Respond confidently and persuasively.
  • Ask insightful questions.
  • Demonstrate professionalism and good interpersonal skills.
• Organizational Success: Facilitates conflict resolution, boosts motivation, aids in problem-solving, and enhances public relations.
• Personal Effectiveness: Building and maintaining relationships, expressing needs, and understanding others.

D. Symbols in Spoken Language

The two basic categories of symbols in any spoken language are verbal (words) and nonverbal (tone, gestures, facial expressions that accompany words).

E. Sharing Common Meanings

The degree to which you and others share common meanings for words will depend on the extent to which you share common backgrounds and experiences.

F. Communication Breakdown

When communication breakdown occurs, it means we have been ineffective in communication.

G. Misconceptions about Communication

• We need more communication / More communication is better: Quality is often more important than quantity. More communication doesn't automatically solve problems if the communication itself is flawed. (Example: Asad's behavior of repeatedly talking about a car purchase, despite his brother's refusal, stems from this misconception.)
• Communication solves all problems / is a cure-all: While good communication can resolve many issues, some problems stem from factors beyond communication (e.g., resource scarcity, fundamental disagreements in values). Communication has the potential for creating or intensifying problems if not handled effectively, rather than always eliminating them.
• Meanings are in words: Meanings are in people, not just words. Words can have different interpretations based on individual experiences, culture, and context.

A. Levels of Communication

• Intrapersonal Communication: Communication with oneself. It involves self-talk, reflection, and forming self-concept. Each morning deciding how to dress, what to eat, where to go, etc., refers to intrapersonal communication.
  • Processes depend on: Frame of reference, Creativity, Self-talk. A "Dull approach" is not conducive to effective intrapersonal processes.
  • Self-Concept: Your image of who you are (psychological, physical, social, spiritual, historical).
  • Self-Image: The mental picture you have of yourself.
  • Self-Esteem: Your evaluation of your own worth.
  • Frame of Reference: Your individual perspective, shaped by beliefs, values, experiences, and culture, through which you interpret messages.
  • Situation depicting intrapersonal communication: "Mushin is thinking about his future career." / "Sarah is sitting quietly at her desk before a major exam. She is mentally reviewing the key concepts she studied, reminding herself of her strengths in the subject, and telling herself, 'I've prepared well for this, I can do it.' She visualizes herself calmly answering the questions and feeling confident."
• Interpersonal Communication: Communication between two or a few people, typically face-to-face.
  • Examples of Interpersonal Exchange: Conversations, dialogues, and small group discussions.
  • Peer-Level Communication with Friends: It is often easier to communicate at the peer level, especially with friends, because of: shared frame of reference (similar backgrounds, experiences, values, jargon), higher trust and openness, reduced status differences, informal channels, empathy and understanding, and established relational history.
• Mediated Communication: Communication that occurs when two (or a few) people use some intermediate means (a medium) for carrying their messages, rather than direct face-to-face interaction.
  • Examples: Telephone calls, emails, letters, instant messaging, video conferencing. "Farhan talking with his friend on telephone." / "Aisha is talking to her friend on phone." The medium can influence the message's interpretation and the immediacy of feedback.
• Person-to-Group Communication: One speaker addressing an audience.
• Mass Communication: Transmitting messages to large, anonymous, and heterogeneous audiences through mass media. Communication in which messages are sent to large, public, dissimilar, anonymous, distant audiences using some intermediate instrument of transfer.
  • Modes: Film, direct mail campaigns, pamphlets, brochures, newspapers, television, internet.

B. Communication in the Organization

• Internal Communication: The exchange of information and ideas within an organization. It includes communication between management and employees, among employees, and between different departments. Its purpose is to inform, instruct, coordinate, motivate, and build morale. (Examples/Mediums: Memos, internal newsletters, team meetings, performance reviews, company intranet, reports, conferences, interoffice memos.)
• External Communication: The exchange of information and ideas between the organization and individuals or groups outside of it. This includes customers, suppliers, investors, government agencies, the media, and the general public (consumers, stockholders). Its purpose is to inform, persuade, build relationships, and manage the organization's image. (Examples: Advertisements, press releases, customer service calls, annual reports, sales letters.)
• Downward Communication: Flows from higher levels (people at higher levels) to lower levels (those at lower levels) (e.g., instructions, policies). Crucial for motivation.
• Upward Communication: Flows from lower levels to higher levels (e.g., feedback, reports, suggestions). Allowing employees to voice ideas also boosts motivation.
• Lateral/Horizontal Communication: Communication between individuals at the same hierarchical level (e.g., co-workers meeting to deal with a problem).
  • Purpose: Coordination, problem-solving, information sharing, conflict resolution among peers or departments.
  • Example: Marketing manager discussing a new campaign with the sales manager; team members collaborating on a project.
• Communication to Motivate Employees:
  • Type of Communication: Primarily downward and effective interpersonal communication.
  • How it Works: Clear goal setting, positive feedback and recognition (e.g., public praise), constructive feedback, showing how work contributes (e.g., CEO explaining departmental contributions to success), empowerment and involvement, open communication climate.

C. Formal and Informal Communication

• Formal Communication: Follows the official channels and structures within an organization. It is documented, planned, and often related to professional tasks and policies.
  • Examples: Official memos, reports, scheduled meetings, formal presentations.
• Informal Communication: Occurs outside the official channels, often spontaneously. It's typically based on personal relationships and social needs (e.g., the "grapevine").
  • Examples: Casual conversations between colleagues, social gatherings, unofficial discussions.

A. Definition

Communication that occurs when two (or a few) people talk face to face. It involves unique thinking between individuals and an overriding process created by their interaction.

B. Need for/Functions of Interpersonal Communication

• Gaining Information: We learn about the world and others through interaction.
• Building a Context of Understanding: We develop shared meanings and understanding of messages through interpersonal exchange.
• Establishing Identity: Our interactions help shape and confirm our self-concept.
• Interpersonal Needs:
  • Inclusion: The need to establish identity with others.
  • Control: The need to exercise leadership and prove one's abilities.
  • Affection: The need to develop relationships with people.

C. Contexts of Interpersonal Communication

The environment in which interpersonal communication occurs significantly influences its nature and outcome.

• Psychological Context: Who you are and what you bring to the interaction (needs, desires, values, personality, etc.).
• Relational Context: Your reactions to the other person ("the mix").
• Situational Context: The psycho-social "where" you are communicating. An interaction in a classroom is different from one in a restaurant.
• Environmental Context: The physical "where" you are communicating. Includes furniture, location, noise level, temperature, season, time of day.
• Cultural Context: All the learned behaviors and rules that affect the interaction. Different cultures have different norms for eye contact, directness, etc.

A. Importance of Listening

Listening is a critical communication skill. We spend a large percentage of our communication time listening. Good listeners make better communicators and are more effective in organizations. Studies show that job applicants are more likely to make a favorable impression and get a job offer when they let the interviewer do most of the talking, indicating good listening skills.

B. The Process of Listening

• Receiving/Hearing: The initial, automatic psychological/physiological process of picking up/detecting sound waves.
• Filtering: The process of giving symbols meanings through the unique contents of each person’s mind (experiences, biases, expectations, interests, needs, etc.). Selecting certain stimuli to attend to while ignoring others.
• Understanding (Comprehending/Grasping): Attaching meaning to the speaker's words; learning what the speaker means by seeing ideas from their point of view; interpreting the speaker's message.
• Remembering (Retaining): Storing the information for future recall. Memory for speech is often reconstructive, not reproductive (we remember the gist, not necessarily exact words).
• Evaluating (Assessing): Judging messages for accuracy, truthfulness, value, and relevance.
• Responding (Feedback): Providing verbal or nonverbal reactions to the speaker, indicating understanding or a reaction to the message.

C. Active Listening

A special kind of listening that involves sending back to the speaker what you as a listener think the speaker meant—both in content and in feelings. It is a communication technique that requires the listener to fully concentrate, understand, respond, and then remember what is being said; more than just hearing, it's about understanding the complete message.

Purpose of Active Listening:

• To ensure accurate understanding of the message.
• To show the speaker you are engaged and interested.
• To help the speaker clarify their own thoughts.
• To build rapport and trust.

Characteristics of Active Listening:

• Paying Full Attention: Maintaining eye contact (culturally appropriate), avoiding distractions, and focusing on the speaker.
• Showing Interest: Using nonverbal cues like nodding, leaning forward, and appropriate facial expressions.
• Paraphrasing/Summarizing: Restating the speaker's message in your own words to confirm understanding (e.g., "So, if I understand you correctly, you're saying...").
• Asking Clarifying Questions: Seeking more information if something is unclear, rather than making assumptions.
• Reflecting Feelings: Acknowledging and reflecting the emotions the speaker might be conveying (e.g., "It sounds like you're feeling frustrated about this.").
• Being Non-Judgmental and Empathetic: Trying to understand the speaker's perspective without immediately criticizing or imposing your own views.
• Providing Appropriate Feedback: Responding in a way that shows you've heard and understood.

Example: "After listening to Ayesha’s long speech, Beenish told her what she understood from her long talk."

D. Types/Levels of Listening

• Critical Listening: Listening to evaluate the message for its accuracy, truthfulness, and value; used to evaluate bias. It's essential for detecting propaganda or biased information. (Example: Farah was doubtful about Saman's intentions while Saman was trying to convince her to invest.)
  • Characteristics of Critical Listening: Keep an open mind, avoid filtering out difficult messages, recognize your own biases, analyze evidence, look for assumptions, evaluate arguments, recognize emotional appeals, assess speaker credibility, summarize and review.
• Empathic Listening: Listening to understand the speaker's feelings and perspective, often to offer support or build a relationship. Involves demonstrating empathy ("between the lines" listening); requires heightened awareness to grasp the entire message including unspoken emotional content.
• Protective Listening: (Mentioned as a level of listening).
• Partial Listening / Marginal Listening: A type of ineffective listening where the listener only pays attention to parts of the message or is intermittently attentive. The listener may be distracted, uninterested, or only focusing on what they deem important, thus missing crucial information or the overall context. Can distort the intent of the message.
  • Consequences: Leads to misunderstandings, incomplete information, errors, and frustration for both the speaker and the listener.

E. Improving Listening Skills / Overcoming Listening Barriers

• Bad Habits Affecting Listening: Interrupting the speaker, daydreaming or becoming easily distracted, jumping to conclusions, faking attention, criticizing speaker's delivery, emotionally charged reactions.
• How to be a Better Listener: Don't talk; listen (avoid interrupting), keep an open mind, be receptive to new ideas, listen for main points, provide feedback, take notes (if appropriate), force yourself to focus on the message, not the environment (minimize distractions), pay attention to verbal and nonverbal cues, talk less, listen for feelings as well as facts. If external commotion is a problem, try to position yourself away from it or make eye contact with the speaker to stay focused.
• Not suggested for better listening: Draw conclusion when speaker begins talking (this is jumping to conclusions, a barrier).
• Listener Barriers (Factors/Causes): Preoccupation/Distraction, Prejudice/Bias, Jumping to Conclusions, Emotional Interference/Emotional Blocks, Egocentrism (the belief that your own ideas are more important or valuable than those of others), Semantic Barriers, Lack of Interest, Physical Discomfort, Preconceived ideas, Inattentive listening.
• How to Overcome/Avoid Listener Barriers: Focus Attention (consciously decide to listen; minimize distractions), Keep an Open Mind (be willing to hear out the speaker, even if you initially disagree; suspend judgment), Don't Interrupt (allow the speaker to complete their thoughts), Ask Clarifying Questions (if something is unclear, ask for more information rather than assuming), Listen for Main Ideas (try to identify the core message), Provide Feedback (use active listening techniques to ensure understanding), Manage Emotions (be aware of your emotional responses and try to prevent them from blocking listening), Take Notes (if appropriate, can help maintain focus and aid recall).
• Result of Listening Barriers: Misunderstandings, errors, frustration, damaged relationships, inefficiency, missed information, poor retention, and poor decision-making.

F. Qualities of a Good/Favorite Listener

A "favorite" listener likely exhibits qualities of an active and empathic listener:

• Pays full attention.
• Shows genuine interest through verbal and nonverbal cues.
• Doesn't interrupt unnecessarily.
• Asks clarifying questions.
• Remembers what was said.
• Is open-minded and non-judgmental.
• Makes the speaker feel heard and understood.

G. Hearing vs. Listening

• Hearing: A physical process of perceiving sound.
• Listening: A mental process that begins when sound reaches the brain; involves paying attention, actively trying to understand, interpreting, and comprehending spoken language.

H. Retention in Listening

Human memory, especially for speech, is reconstructive, meaning we tend to remember the gist rather than exact words.

A. Definition & Impact

Communication that occurs through means other than words. It often accompanies verbal messages and can reinforce, contradict, substitute, or regulate verbal communication. Facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, and body language can tell about the speaker's frame of mind and level of confidence. One's facial area is more capable of communicating nonverbally than any other part of the human body. About 93% of human communication is estimated to be nonverbal. Body language (posture, gestures, facial expressions, eye movements) plays a significant role, often conveying more than words. It indicates attitude and emotional state and is crucial for understanding, especially across cultural barriers.

B. Types of Nonverbal Communication

• Appearance: Physical characteristics, clothing, grooming. Influences first impressions. Appearance is a form of nonverbal communication, not verbal. (Letters, books, and reports are forms of verbal (written) communication).
• Facial Expressions: Convey emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, fear, disgust).
• Eye Contact (Oculesics): Can indicate interest, attentiveness, honesty, or aggression. Cultural norms vary greatly. Immediacy during a presentation often comes from making eye contact, as it signals connection with the audience. Frequent eye contact can show interest and connection, which can be interpreted as liking or positive regard in many contexts.
• Gestures (Kinesics): Movements of hands, arms, and body to emphasize or illustrate points. Gestures add meaning, express ideas, and can indicate emotions or nervousness.
• Touch (Haptics): Communicates affection, support, power. Use is highly contextual and culturally sensitive. Four types: professional/social, friendship, love/intimacy, sexual. Examples include a handshake, a hug, a pat. (Drawing the eyebrow down is a facial expression, not touch).
• Posture: How you carry yourself; can signal confidence, nervousness, openness. Self-confident individuals usually stand more erect than those who lack confidence.
• Voice (Vocalics/Paralanguage): Tone, pitch, rate, volume, rhythm, pauses. How you say something.
  • Pitch: The degree of highness or lowness of a sound. Vary pitch to avoid monotony. Raising the pitch at the end of a sentence usually signifies a question.
  • Volume: Loudness or softness of voice. Adjust for audience and room size.
  • Rate: Speed of speaking. Average rate of speech is approximately 100-150 words/minute (or ~140 wpm). Vary rate for emphasis and clarity. Varying speech rate helps maintain interest, emphasize points, and ensure comprehension. Too fast is hard to follow; too slow can be boring.
  • Tone: Quality of voice that conveys emotion or attitude. Significantly impacts how the message and speaker are perceived. An appropriate, varied tone engages; a monotonous one disengages or can distract audience members.
  • Quality of Tone: A combination of pitch, strength, and character; the characteristic which enables us to distinguish one voice from another.
  • Good Voice Quality: Involves appropriate pitch, speed (rate), and volume.
  • Vocal Emphasis: Can be achieved by various means, including getting louder, changing pitch, or slowing down. "Getting louder" is one way.
  • Articulation: The skill of speaking in distinct syllables, characterized by correct pronunciation and clear enunciation. It makes speech easier to understand.
  • Rhythm: The pattern of emphasis in speech.
  • Pauses: Used for emphasis, to allow listeners to absorb information, or for dramatic effect.
• Silence: Can convey a range of meanings (thoughtfulness, respect, disagreement, discomfort).
• Time (Chronemics): Use of time, punctuality. Reflects cultural values and personal priorities. The way individuals use their time communicates nonverbally. Arriving late for an appointment can diminish the perceived importance of that appointment. Cultural interpretations of time vary widely.
• Space (Proxemics): Use of personal space and territory. Physical distance during communication significantly impacts interactions. The appropriate distance varies by culture, relationship, and situation. Different cultures have different norms for physical distance.

  Zones of Personal Space:

  Visualizing Zones of Personal Space (Proxemics)

  Concentric circles illustrating the different zones of personal space surrounding an individual.

  • Intimate Distance: Up to 1.5 feet (0 to 1.5 feet). Reserved for very close relationships (e.g., family, romantic partners). Communication is often through whispers, touch. Violating this space with strangers is uncomfortable.
  • Personal Distance: 1.5 to 4.0 feet. Used for conversations with friends and acquaintances. Allows for more personal interaction but still maintains some privacy.
  • Social Distance: 4.0 to 12.0 feet. Common for formal interactions, business transactions, and group discussions. Allows for more formal communication.
  • Public Distance: Beyond 12.0 feet. Used for public speaking, lectures, and addressing large groups. Communication is more formal and often one-way.

  Impact on Communication: Comfort Level (Inappropriate distance can make people uncomfortable), Relationship Indication, Message Interpretation (Too close might seem aggressive; too distant might seem aloof), Cultural Differences.

C. Interpretation of Body Language

The interpretation of body language is not universal and varies significantly across cultures (e.g., eye contact norms in USA vs. Pakistan). Having hands on hips, pointing with the index finger, and pounding fists are commonly interpreted as dictatorial or arrogant.

D. Equivocal Terms

Words that have more than one meaning. (Note: This is a verbal concept; nonverbal cues can sometimes help clarify or further confuse equivocal terms.)

A. Audience Analysis

Understanding your audience is crucial for effective speech delivery.

• Importance of Understanding Audience Nature: To deliver an effective speech, you must connect with your audience. Understanding their prior knowledge, attitudes, needs, and expectations allows you to frame your message in a way that is clear, relevant, engaging, and persuasive to them. It helps avoid alienating them or presenting information that is too simple, too complex, or irrelevant.
• A-U-D-I-E-N-C-E Acronym:

  A

  nalysis: Who are they? How many?

  U

  nderstanding: Their knowledge of the topic.

  D

  emographics: Age, gender, education, occupation, cultural background, etc.

  I

  nterest: Why are they there? What are their concerns?

  E

  nvironment: Where will you speak? Seating, visibility, potential distractions.

  N

  eeds: What do they need/want from your speech?

  C

  ustomized: How can you adapt/customize your message for them?

  E

  xpectations: What do they expect to learn or hear?

• Importance of Demographic Factors: Demographics help tailor the message's content, language, examples, and appeals to resonate with the specific audience, making it more relevant and persuasive. For example, a speech on retirement planning would differ for an audience of college students versus an audience of middle-aged professionals.
• Demographical Factors/Characteristics of Audience: Age, gender, educational level, occupation, income, marital status, cultural background, religion, group affiliations, geographic location, sex. Understanding these helps tailor the speech's content, language, examples, and style to be more effective and relatable. For instance, examples used for an audience of teenagers would differ from those for senior citizens; technical jargon might be appropriate for a group of experts but not for a general audience. Attitude is a psychographic characteristic.
• Knowing the audience's level of agreement and commitment to your topic is important when considering the amount of background and motivational material to include.
• Negative Results of Failing to Analyze Audience Properly: Assuming gender stereotypes, offending audience members with contrary beliefs, using inappropriate jargon/vocabulary.
• Key Rule for a Good Speech: To keep in mind that audiences care most about things that directly affect them.
• Anticipating Questions: When anticipating questions for a speech (e.g., on "Child Labour in Pakistan"), the presenter should primarily keep in mind his previous experiences with similar topics or audiences.

B. Selecting and Researching a Topic

• Topic Selection: Should be appealing, intriguing, manageable, and relevant. The first step for the preparation of a speech is selection of topic.
• Researching:
  • Gathering materials (books, articles, databases).
  • Taking notes.
• Periodicals: Publications printed at regular intervals (e.g., daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly) that continue to be printed for an indefinite period. Journals, magazines, and newspapers are types of periodicals.
• Magazines: Magazine articles tend to be shorter and more general, are a type of periodical, and publish for a general audience. However, articles in magazines usually do NOT include bibliographies (unlike scholarly journals).
• Citation: A reference to a source used in an article, essay, book, speech, etc. It gives credit to the original author and allows others to locate the source. Articles are primarily identified from citations in periodical indexes.
• Contents of Citations (for periodicals): Author's Name(s), Title of Article, Name of Periodical (Journal, Magazine, or Newspaper), Volume Number (for journals), Issue Number (for journals and some magazines), Date of Publication (year, month, and sometimes day), Page Numbers of the article. (Specific formatting (e.g., APA, MLA) dictates the order and punctuation.)
• Example of Citation (for a periodical/journal article): "Berg, Fanny D. and Newell, W.W. Journal of American Folklore. 2:5 (1889 Apr/Jun) 105"
• Periodical Indexes: Citations in periodical indexes primarily help identify articles within those periodicals.
• Newspaper Indexes: In general, there are three kinds: individual newspaper indexes, indexes covering multiple newspapers, and general periodical indexes that include newspapers.
• Electronic Periodical Indexes: Include World Wide Web, CD-ROM, Online systems. (Journals are the publications themselves, not the index type).

C. Thesis Statement and Main Points

• Thesis Statement: A single, clear, declarative sentence that states the central idea or purpose of your speech. It's the main argument or point you want your audience to understand or accept. A thesis must be concrete in its wording to provide clear focus and avoid vagueness.
• Points to Keep in Mind While Developing a Thesis:
  • Declarative Sentence: It should be a statement, not a question.
  • Focused and Specific: Not too broad or vague.
  • Single Idea: Express one main idea.
  • Audience-Appropriate: Consider what will be clear and relevant to your listeners.
  • Achievable: Something you can reasonably cover in the allotted time.
• Formulating Main Points: The key ideas that support your thesis. When developing main points for a thesis, the points should be distinct.
• Example for "Smoking in Public Places":
  • Main Point 1: Smoking in public places poses significant health risks to non-smokers due to secondhand smoke exposure. (Focuses on harm to others)
  • Main Point 2: Banning smoking in public places creates a healthier, more pleasant environment for everyone and respects the rights of individuals to breathe clean air. (Focuses on benefits of a ban and rights)

D. Structuring the Speech

• Basic Parts of a Speech: A speech must have three general parts: Introduction, Body, Conclusion.
• Introduction:
  • Begins the moment you address the audience / are in view of your listeners.
  • Purposes: Get attention, introduce thesis, establish credibility/rapport, preview main points. (Not "Avoid to the audience").
  • Tools to Get Audience Attention: Startling statement or statistic, rhetorical question, story or anecdote, quotation, humor (if appropriate), reference to the occasion or recent events, use of visual aids (a brief, powerful visual can be an attention-getter), style of delivery. ("Time period" is not a direct tool for capturing attention).
• Body:
  • Organize main points logically. Support main points with evidence, examples, and explanations.
  • Organizational Patterns for Speech Body/Outline:
    • Chronological Pattern: Arranges main points in a time sequence, either forward or backward (e.g., historical events, steps in a process, biographical speeches).
    • Spatial Pattern: Arranges main points according to their physical relationship or location; used to describe an object, a place, or arrange material according to physical relationship or location (e.g., describing parts of an object from top to bottom, features of a geographical area from east to west).
    • Topical Pattern: Divides the main topic into a series of related subtopics or logical categories. This is a very flexible pattern.
    • Logical Pattern (e.g., Problem-Solution, Cause-Effect): Organizes points based on logical relationships. The problem/solution method is a type of Logical organizational pattern.
    • Cause-and-Effect Pattern Example: A speech on air pollution might discuss: 1. Causes of air pollution (industrial emissions, vehicle exhaust), 2. Effects of air pollution (health problems, environmental damage).
    (Specific organizational patterns include spatial, chronological, and topical. Deductive ordering is a type of logical order or approach within a pattern, rather than a primary structural pattern itself in the same vein as the others listed.)
• Conclusion:
  • Summarize main points.
  • Restate thesis (often in a memorable way).
  • Provide a sense of closure (e.g., call to action, final thought).
• Purpose of an Outline: Helps put order to information, serves as a model, acts as a guide for delivery. It does not help to build confusion for listeners.
• Using Statistics: When using statistics in a speech, rounding and using a few key statistics is generally most effective for audience comprehension and recall.
• Effective Conflict in Speech: This likely refers to how a speaker can effectively address conflict or controversial topics within a speech, or use contrasting ideas to make a point. This would involve:
  • Acknowledging different viewpoints fairly.
  • Using logical reasoning and strong evidence to support their stance.
  • Maintaining a respectful and objective tone.
  • Focusing on issues rather than personalities.
  • Potentially offering solutions or common ground.

E. Modes of Delivery

• Reading from a Manuscript: Speaking from a fully written script. Involves speakers reading their remarks/comments word for word from a prepared statement. Best when a slight error in wording could have serious consequences.
• Memorized: Reciting a fully memorized script.
• Impromptu Speaking: Delivering a speech with little or no prior preparation or rehearsal ("off-the-cuff").
  • Characteristics: Spontaneous, conversational.
  • Suggestions/Making it Better: Quickly jot down a few key ideas or a simple outline, stick to what you know well, keep it brief and focused, speak conversationally, maintain composure; it's okay if it's not perfect.
• Extemporaneous Speaking: Delivering a speech that has been carefully prepared, researched, outlined, and practiced from an outline or notes, but not memorized word-for-word. Relies on speaking notes (outline or keywords).
  • Characteristics: Well-organized, conversational, allows for flexibility and adaptation.
  • Advantages: Combines structure with spontaneity, allows for eye contact and audience engagement.
  • Making it Better: Thorough research and a well-structured outline, practice the speech multiple times (focusing on flow and transitions, not memorization), use concise keyword-based notes, aim for a conversational natural delivery, maintain good eye contact and adapt to audience feedback.
• Difference between Extemporaneous and Impromptu Speaking:

  Feature	Extemporaneous Speaking	Impromptu Speaking
  Preparation	Thorough preparation and practice from notes/outline.	Minimal to no specific preparation for that particular speech at that moment.
  Structure	Well-structured.	Structured on the fly.
  Delivery	Aims for a polished yet conversational style.	Naturally more spontaneous and less polished.

F. Using Speaking Notes

Speaking notes for a speech (especially extemporaneous) should be: Legible (easy for you to read at a glance), Unobtrusive (not distracting to the audience), Brief (using keywords or phrases rather than full sentences).

G. Strategies for Effective Oral Delivery

Vocal Cues:

• Pitch: Highness or lowness of voice. Vary pitch to avoid monotony.
• Volume: Loudness or softness. Adjust for audience and room size.
• Rate: Speed of speaking. Average speaker's rate: 100 to 150 words per minute. Vary rate for emphasis and clarity. Importance of Rate of Speech: Varying speech rate helps maintain interest, emphasize points, and ensure comprehension.
• Tone: Quality of voice that conveys emotion or attitude. Tone's Contribution to Voice Quality: Tone (combination of pitch, strength, character) significantly impacts how the message and speaker are perceived. An appropriate, varied tone engages; a monotonous one disengages.
• Voice Quality: The characteristic which enables us to distinguish one voice from another.

Speech Patterns:

• Inflection: Changes in pitch or tone to convey meaning.
• Articulation: Clarity and distinctness of sounds and syllables; correct pronunciation and clear enunciation.
• Fillers: Unnecessary words or sounds like "um," "ah," "you know" that interrupt the continuity of communication. Avoid overuse.
• Pauses: Used for emphasis, to allow listeners to absorb information, or for dramatic effect.

Visual Cues (Body Language):

• Facial Expressions: Should match the message's content and tone.
• Eye Contact: Connects with the audience, conveys confidence.
• Gestures: Natural hand and arm movements to emphasize points. Using gestures (hand/arm movements) adds meaning, expresses ideas, and can indicate emotions or nervousness.
• Movement & Posture: Purposeful movement can add energy; good posture conveys confidence.

Behaviors/Actions Speaker Should Avoid During Presentation:

• Lack of Eye Contact: Reading notes excessively, looking at the floor/ceiling, or staring at one spot.
• Distracting Mannerisms: Fidgeting, pacing excessively, playing with pens or pointers, jingling keys, inappropriate or repetitive gestures.
• Poor Vocal Delivery: Speaking in a monotone, too softly, too quickly, or using excessive filler words.
• Inappropriate Attire or Grooming: Dressing too casually for a formal occasion or having unkempt appearance.
• Turning Back to the Audience: Especially when using visual aids, avoid speaking to the screen.
• Reading Slides Verbatim: If slides are text-heavy and the speaker just reads them.
• Disrespecting Time Limits: Going significantly over or under the allotted time.
• Defensive or Argumentative Tone: When responding to questions or differing viewpoints.

H. Irrational Beliefs about Presentations / Managing Speech Apprehension/Confidence / Overcoming Stage Fright

• Irrational Beliefs: An irrational belief like "A presentation must be perfect" can increase anxiety. Other irrational beliefs might include thinking it's not possible to persuade the entire audience (while true, fixating on it can be unhelpful) or that the worst is likely to happen. The core idea is that striving for perfection can be counterproductive.
• Suggestions for Confidence/Overcoming Stage Fright (e.g., for Mrs. Ali who has no confidence to face the audience):
  • Thorough Preparation & Practice: The more prepared she is with her content and has practiced her delivery, the more confident she will feel. Rehearse in front of a mirror, friends, or family.
  • Know Your Audience: Understanding who she's speaking to can reduce fear of the unknown.
  • Know the Room.
  • Focus on the Message, Not Fear: Concentrate on conveying her message clearly and passionately, rather than dwelling on her anxiety.
  • Visualize Success: Imagine herself giving a successful presentation.
  • Relax: Use relaxation techniques like deep breathing exercises before and during the speech.
  • Start Strong: Have a well-rehearsed and engaging opening to build momentum and confidence.
  • Connect with Friendly Faces: Find supportive individuals in the audience to make eye contact with initially.
  • Realize People Want You to Succeed.
  • Don't Apologize for Nervousness.
  • Turn Nervousness into Positive Energy.
  • Gain Experience.
  • Remember Perfection is Not Required: It's okay to make small mistakes; the audience is usually supportive.

I. Seating Arrangements

Physical factors like seating arrangement, temperature, and noise can influence the audience's frame of mind.

• Conventional Theatre Style of Seating: In this arrangement, chairs (or fixed seats) are aligned in consecutive straight rows, all facing a stage or a single focal point at the front of the room, similar to a traditional theatre or cinema. There are typically no tables. People in the audience are seated in rows and columns without tables.
  • Characteristics/Use: Maximizes seating capacity for a given space. Suitable for large audiences where the primary mode of communication is one-way (e.g., lectures, formal presentations, speeches). Focuses all attention on the speaker or performers. Generally offers limited interaction among audience members. Can be less comfortable for long durations if seating is cramped, especially for presentations lasting longer than an hour. Interaction between the speaker and audience is often limited to Q&A sessions.
• Modification of Conventional Classroom Seating: The Modified T-formation is described as an adaptation of the conventional classroom style, useful for interactive presentations. (V-formation is also a modification).
• U-formation: Suitable for both promotional and informational presentations in either Proactive or Interactive modes.

J. Handling Questions and Answers (Q&A)

• Preparing Effective Responses: A presenter can prepare effective responses by anticipating questions, preparing answers, rehearsing, and revising presentation content if needed.
• Essential steps for an effective immediate response to questions are: Listen, Discern (understand the question), (Affirm - acknowledge the question), and Answer. (Anticipation is part of the preparation phase before the Q&A session itself).
• Responding to Objections: Three appropriate responses:
  • Agree: If the objection is valid.
  • Re-approach: Present the matter differently if the objection stems from misunderstanding the presentation of the point.
  • Arbitrate (using "feel-felt-found"): Acknowledge feelings, share a third-party experience, and present a positive outcome.

K. Presentation Dynamics

• When a Presentation Begins: The moment you are in view of your listeners.

L. Types of Speeches

• Persuasive Speech: A speech designed to change or reinforce the audience's beliefs or actions. The speaker acts as an "advocate."
• Informative Speech: Aims to provide information, enhance knowledge. The speaker acts as a "teacher."
• Ceremonial Speeches: Delivered at special occasions (e.g., tributes, acceptance speeches, inspirational speeches, after-dinner speeches, Master of Ceremonies (MC) roles).